Women Leaders in the Old Testament

Can and should women be leaders? For many Christians, this is a loaded question. Although women can increasingly be observed in leadership in the broader society, is it appropriate within the church? While most would not object to women serving/ministering in areas such as hospitality or prayer ministry, some think women should not serve as leaders; women should not hold public office or exercise leadership in the Christian community.1 In thinking about this question, it is essential as believers that we turn to Scripture to find insight and guidance. Throughout this chapter we will explore some of the key women leaders in the Old Testament texts to understand their role and function within the community of Israel. This survey will initially provide some background to the cultural and social context of the Old Testament, particularly noting the intention for male-female relationships described in the creation account. However, that intention for mutuality was twisted when humanity chose independence from God, instead choosing to follow their own plan. This resulted in what is termed a patriarchal culture. In this cultural system, the exercise of authority and government leadership is almost entirely the domain of men.

Despite that, at various times, women did lead at a national level. To explore this, we will highlight several women from across different historical periods to demonstrate that at various stages in the Old Testament, women exercised authority and influence within the community of ancient Israel.

In the Beginning

Genesis 1 to 3 is arguably the most important text for understanding God's intention for the world and for the man-woman relationship. The first chapter of the Bible describes the creation of the world using the terminology of building a house or temple. The form or structure of the building is fashioned in the first three days (Gen 1:1-9), and then the building is filled in the final three days (Gen 1:10-31). However, like other temples of the ancient Near East, the Temple is not complete until the deity places their own image in the centre of the sanctuary. In this case, the image is not a carved idol but a living, breathing woman and man (Gen 1:26-30). Together, they provide an ikon or representation of God to the rest of the creation. But what does it mean for humanity to be made in the image of God? This question has bewildered theologians over the centuries. I do not claim to have the final answer to this question, however most recent biblical scholarship has concluded that When God said, "Let us make humanity in our image", he was giving to men and women authority to rule over the world he had created. He was delegating leadership to them. Being made in the image of God meant that a special relationship between God and human beings was bestowed. They were his representatives on earth. Humans (both male and female) rule as a result of their royal status. The future indicative tense is used in the phrase "so that they may rule"2 As Wellum and Gentry note, the future rulership or leadership of humanity over creation is not the essence of divine image, but a consequence of being made in the divine image. 3 The capacity for leadership was given to both man and woman. This means that both women and men were created with the ability and charter to lead. However, this account of creation in Genesis 1 is not the end of the Biblical account of creation.

We must read on. Genesis chapters 2 and 3 complete the story, giving a complementary account in narrative form.

Genesis chapters 2 and 3 give what is called "the second account of creation". Here we find a far more personal or immanent picture of God and of the man and the woman. The story is set in a garden, the Garden of Eden. First God created the man (adam) from the earth (adamah). The man was created to care for the earth from which he was formed However, in the midst of this paradisal garden God identified something "not good" with the picture: the adam was alone. God then provided the solution through forming the woman (ishah) from the man (ish).

The woman was created as a helper' to the man. Some interpreters of Genesis 2 consider that because the woman was created 'second' and "from' the man she is subordinate to him (Gen 2:22).4 She was created to provide support and encouragement to his leadership. These people then argue since woman was created 'second' and is man's subordinate helper before the fall, this ordering is what is prescribed in God's good creation before the fall.5 For others, neither the chronological order of the creation of man and woman in Genesis 2 nor the description of the woman as the man's 'helper indicates her subordination before the fall.6 They note that the majority of times that the word 'helper' is used in Scripture it is referring to God (or a superior) bringing help or salvation to an inferior. 7 This is not to suggest that the man is an inferior to the woman. The term "helper' in Genesis 2 is qualified by another word that can be translated as "comparable to". That is, the helper provided by God is the man's counterpart or complement: "bone of his bone and flesh of his flesh" (Gen 2:24) - she is just like me but she is woman. The woman (ishah) is not subordinate to the man (ish) because she was made from his flesh or man (adam) subordinate to the earth (adamah, because he was made from it. The man did not create the woman: God did. Neither does the act of the man naming the animals or his exclamation, "She shall be called woman (ishah)" indicate that man ruled in the garden over everything including the woman. Naming indicates distinguishing differences and the exclamation Adam makes when he sees the woman simply designates her gender and mutuality to him by making a pun on a common noun - she is "woman". She is like him, but distinct from him. Adam does not name her 'Eve' (mother) until after the fall (Gen 2:20). However, the man and woman in Genesis 2 are another representation of the couple in Genesis 1: a community of equals made by God. From this we can see that women and men were created to be a community and complement one another. To argue that man/the male is self-sufficient without woman is clearly contrary to the text, which says man, without woman, is incomplete, 'help-less'. Nothing in Genesis 2 suggests that one sex is set over the other. Rather both chapter 1 and 2 of Genesis indicate that men and women were created to be complementary, equal, related, and to rule conjointly over God's world. This also does not suggest that men and women are complete only within marriage, but rather that human beings were created to be in community and to complement one another.

This perfect relationship between the man and the woman described so poetically in chapter 2 of Genesis is, we are told in Genesis 3, ruined by the sin of Adam and Eve. Although they sinned and fell as individuals it is clear in Gen 3:7 that they sinned and fell as a pair - it was only when they had both taken and eaten the fruit that the eyes of both of them were opened and they knew they were naked. Then they were both consequently punished. As a result of their sin their perfect relationship with God, each other, and with their environment is ruined. The punishment for the woman (ishah) is that she will desire her husband (ish). Traditionally, this desire has been taken to speak of the woman's desire for intimacy with her husband, but in recent times those who argue for the creation-given subordination of women have argued it speaks of the woman's desire to rule over her husband. But this argument has little to commend it. God's word, "he shall rule over you" is descriptive of life in a fallen world, especially in a patriarchal culture; it is not prescriptive. What this means is that the rule of the man describes the reality that women will experience in the world outside of the Garden of Eden. I note again, it is after the fall that the man names his wife (3:20). Their sin also results in a rupture in the harmonious relationship between the man (adam) and the earth (adamah). The punishment for the man is comparable to the woman's. He will experince pain and frustration in labouring in the fields. After the fall, we may even say, he ceases to be a 'gardener' and becomes a farmer".

In the first instance what takes place after Adam and Eve sin explains life in a patriarchal and agricultural society, yet secondarily it explains the reality in the world generally experienced across the centuries. What this means is that Genesis 3 provides a description of, not a justification for, the overall male dominance in ancient Israelite society, and the subordination of women across the ages. In Genesis chapter 3 we see a huge contrast between the man-woman relationship as God intended it to be and as it is in our fallen world. We see here how profound the change was in the relationship between man and woman, and God and humanity, as a consequence of the sin of both the man and the woman. It is only "in Christ" that the broken relationships between God and humanity, and man and woman can be fully and permanently restored. The culture of the Old Testament Hopefully from the discussion so far, a key issue in reading the Old Testament has been raised in your mind. From the outset, when we begin to look at the roles of women and men in the Old Testament it is important as contemporary readers that we do not cut-and-paste our culture and perspective on to the text. Instead, we need to understand the culture that existed during this period to fully appreciate the man-woman relationship in the Old Testament.8 Their society was patriarchal and agricultural, for the most part. The term patriarchy is ambiguous and often misunderstood. It means different things in different contexts and at different times in history. So we need to keep in mind when unpacking the nature of patriarchal culture in the Old Testament that it is a description of the social reality, not an endorsement of it. It is up to the reader to discern what is moral or immoral behaviour, or a positive cultural value or negative one in the many stories in the Old Testament set in this cultural context. For example, the narrative of Genesis 12 tells us that Abram lied to the Pharaoh of Egypt in calling Sarai his sister. Although she was technically his half-sister, she was also his wife. We are not told by the narrator that Abram's action was wrong. However by reading the consequences of his action and the broader theology of the Bible, we are shown that dishonesty is always wrong. This means the reader is supposed to conclude that what Abram did in lying was not pleasing to God. This evaluation by the reader is informed by a broader understanding of the laws and theology of the Bible. In this sense, the Bible helps us to understand each section, and each section helps us to understand the Bible as a whole.

The patriarchal world described in the biblical text is far removed from our own contemporary culture, particularly in regard to male-female relationships. The patriarchy of ancient Israel was a cultural system in which it was simply assumed that men would be in leadership and this is what God wanted. In ancient Israelite and Jewish law men had authority to make decisions that affected their families as well as the broader Israelite community.9 In our culture, things are very different. Men and women are equal in law. Nevertheless men have many privileges and opportunities that women do not have, and many Christians think that men should still exercise authority over their wife and families; that only men should lead in church, and often though it is seldom said openly, that only men should be leaders in society.

In the light of the unambiguous patriarchy of Old Testament culture, the number of women who actually assumed leadership is amazing. It is almost as if God is continually reminding the writers and readers of the Old Testament of the creation ideal where the man and the woman stood side by side, each given the mandate to 'rule'.

Before we look at some of these women leaders, the point needs to be made that the governing or leadership structures of ancient Israel were not static but developed historically from what John Goldingay calls a wandering clan, to a theocracy, to an institutional state, then to a remnant in the exilic period.10 These epochs reflect different ways that the "people of God" were governed and organised in the Old Testament period. What this means is that the participation of women (and men) in the public leadership of the community must be considered in the light of the changing governmental structures in each epoch in the unfolding story of ancient Israel. Before the establishment of the monarchy the government structures were more informal, which meant there was much more openness to women's involvement in public leadership.

However, with the establishment of the monarchy, leadership opportunities for women (and for most men outside the royal family) were greatly reduced.11 So, let us consider the various epochs of ancient Israel, from wandering clan to remnant, to examine some examples of women's leadership. For space considerations, one example only will be considered from each epoch. A Wandering Clan: Miriam

Women can give significant leadership both inside the family setting and outside in the wider community. Sarah and Rebekah in the Genesis narrative are example of the former. Their leadership was restricted to the domestic sphere but not just within their immediate family. God's people at this time were associated in tribes and extended families. Sarah (Gen 16:1-6, 21:8-14) and Rebekah (Gen 25:19-27, 27:5-17, 27:41-46) are depicted as women who initiate things and are very influential within their extended families, which number in the hundreds (Gen 14:14).

In this context their leadership would have been expressed primarily through management and distribution of economic resources as well as directing the human resources of the household including slaves and servants). Considering the comparatively primitive conditions for feeding, clothing and caring for "a household" of possibly hundreds of people. !2 this was no mean feat. It required significant management skills. 13

We do not know when exactly to date Proverbs chapter 31:10-31 which describes the good wife, but it probably comes from the time of the monarchy several centuries later. Nevertheless, because family life changed very little in ancient Israel we may take this to depict leadership a woman could give in her family. While the poem concludes the book of Proverbs with this description of "wisdom in action" generally, it also provides some insight into the influence of women in the home and community. The woman of Proverbs 31 works long hours, she provides food for the home, manages the servants, buys and sells fields, buys and sells goods, cares for the poor and needy, and speaks wisely. Her husband and children praise her for her achievements.

Towards the end of this epoch, as the national entity is emerging through the Exodus experience, Miriam, the sister of Moses emerges as a leader on a larger canvas than the extended family. Clearly, Moses, her brother, is the communal leader and one appointed by God to lead the people out of Egypt. However his siblings, Miriam and Aaron, also exercise leadership, albeit of a lesser significance. Looking back to this time, Micah speaks of God setting Moses, Aaron and Miriam before them as leaders (Mic 6:40). One of the first indicators of Miriam's leadership is in Exodus 15:20-21 when she leads the women in a victory song (which was considered a prophetic action) 14 as a complement to Moses' hymn. In this text, Miriam is explicitly referred to as a prophet, suggesting a high status. A prophet was a recognised role referring to a person who spoke authoritatively from God to the community. Prior to the establishment of the monarchy (or institutional state), prophets generally had a bi-vocational role; they spoke for God and were communal leaders.

We see this bi-vocational aspect of prophet-leader particularly illuminated in Numbers 11. Moses was exhausted from his work as leader and judge of the people. On the advice of Jethro, Moses sought to delegate some of his leadership to the seventy elders. There is an overlap between going to inquire of the judge to settle disputes and solve problems, and going to inquire of the prophet: both require knowledge of God's voice and ways. 15 As the narrative develops, Moses was instructed to congregate the elders so God could impart some of his authority on them. An interesting phenomenon occurred as a result: they prophesied (just once). Ben Witherington suggests that the demonstration of this prophetic activity was intended to validate their leadership. They had been appointed by God.16 They were confirmed as leaders because of this demonstration of prophetic ministry. The epoch of the Judges: Deborah The period of the Judges was a troubled time for ancient Israel. Although they had entered into a unique covenant relationship with God at Sinai, they struggled to maintain their uniqueness. Instead, they were continually tempted to accept the cultural and religious values of the nations among whom they lived. A cycle ensued: they would follow the other nations which resulted in their enslavement to those other nations.

They would then cry out to God who would send a deliverer or Judge, to rescue them. Then there would be peace in the land before the cycle continued once more. One of the earliest Judges was a woman named Deborah, the wife of Lappidoth (Judg 4:4). She is described in Judges 4 as a prophet, Judge and "Mother in Israel". This title "Mother in Israel" was one of respect as it pointed to her public leadership. Eichrodt says it placed Deborah on par with the priests who were called "Father'.17

The root word for Judge (shpht) means 'governor' and the same term is used to refer to the rule of kings, and chieftains. 18 It speaks of an authoritative position during this period before the monarchy. Deborah, we must note, was raised up to be a Judge by God (Judges 2:16) and empowered for this public leadership position by the Spirit of God.19 This reinforced the notion (priorto the monarchy and Davidic covenant) that the only legitimate ruler was one appointed by God, regardless of their gender, class or economic status.20 Like Miriam, Deborah functioned in the bi-vocational roles of both leader and prophet. And like Moses, Deborah served as a judge, providing authoritative legal decisions at well-known locations: Moses in his tent, Deborah under her palm tree. The overlap between going to inquire of the Judge to settle disputes and going to inquire of the prophet was noted above. Both Moses and Deborah directed military leaders (who unequivocally accepted their orders) and sang songs celebrating their military victories.21 Deborah was a national (or super-tribal) leader like Moses. However, there were some unique features of the public leadership of Deborah. First, she was possibly more inclusive or at least collaborative with other leaders. Moses and Miriam sang separate songs of victory to celebrate military success; Deborah cooperated with Barak to sing a song together to celebrate their military success. Second, Deborah is also unique among the Judges as the only one explicitly referred to as both a Judge and a prophet. While the majority of the Judges functioned almost exclusively as military leaders, Deborah functioned as leader and prophet. This makes her unique among Judges and reinforces that she is a leader in the manner of Moses.22 While Deborah is the first prophet to be identified in the "Former prophets" she is not the last. In fact, the literature of the "Former prophets" is framed by two women prophets. It begins with Deborah as the first prophet and ends with Huldah as the last.23

The epoch of the national state led by a king: Huldah

With the advent of the Monarchy and the anointing of Saul as the first king, national leadership in ancient Israel changed dramatically. It was no longer a charismatically appointed Judge who provided leadership, but a King who ruled by dynastic succession. In this epoch it became even harder for women to emerge as communal leaders. However, there was one woman in particular who stands out as active in leadership at this time: Huldah the prophet. Huldah was active in ministry during the rule of King Josiah (2 Kings 22: 14-20; 2 Chronicles 34:22-28). The account in 2 Kings 22 tells us that a 'scroll' had been found in the Temple, which is now generally taken to be the book of Deuteronomy. When the King heard the contents of the scroll he was moved to repentance, but was unsure of what needed to be done. So he sent the High Priest, the court secretary and his personal assistant "to inquire of the Lord" what to do. Surprisingly, the King's advisors sought the advice of Huldah the prophet, the wife of "Shallum, son of Tikvah" (2 Kings 22:14). What is particularly noteworthy about this story is that Jeremiah was also active during this time. Huldah, a woman, was consulted before Jeremiah! Huldah's reply came in the name of Yahweh. She is said, "Thus says the Lord" (2 Kings 22:15, 2 Chronicles 34:24).24 By beginning this way she was saying, "What I say, God says". Her authoritative prophetic message to the King was that all the warnings in the book were warnings from God. Repentance by the King and the nation were needed. On the basis of Huldah's prophesy the King publicly read the document and began religious reforms. An outcome of Huldah's ministry was the empowerment of others, including the King. Her influence and authoritative speech led Josiah to implement national reform, and had enormous impact on a national level. Following her prophetic message, the narrative of 2 Kings 23 tells us how Josiah led the nation in a covenant renewal that had profound consequences, both religious and political. It is also interesting to note the significant leadership that Josiah's mother had. Josiah was only eight years old when he ascended the throne (2 Kings 22:1). It seems that his mother, Jedidah, acted as the surrogate regent until he came of age and after that he continued to consult her. In the epoch of the monarchy, while not holding an official public office, queen-mothers were highly influential in shaping national politics.25

The tragedy of the story of Josiah was that he not could stop the inevitable consequences of the sins of the nation and as a result defeat and exile followed. Josiah was the last great hope that a king might save the Jews. Huldah, the last prophet to speak in the age of the kings, said in God's name what was demanded but she too could not save the nation. The epoch of the returned exiles: Esther Following defeat by the Babylonians in 581, the people of God were exiled from their land and the Temple was destroyed. After a long seventy years the new Persian king allowed them to return. The temple was rebuilt but life was very hard for the Jews, and the rule by their Persian overlords was very galling. The book of Esther is a product of this post-exilic epoch. The narrative describes how an orphan girl became queen in the Persian Empire, and secured the deliverance of the Jewish people living under threat of death. The main aim of this story was to provide hope for the Jews in this very bleak period. Initially taken as a young girl into the palace as part of a macabre beauty pageant designed to find a new queen for the Persian King, Esther won the loyalties of those around her. However, an enemy of the Jews (Haman) was plotting their extermination. When the plot was discovered, Esther had to choose either to deny her ethnicity or identify with her people and seek to help them. Esther chose to act on behalf of her people. In her famous speech she resolutely declared "I will go to the king... though it is against the [Persian] law; if I perish, I perish" (Esther 4:16). She showed herself to be a brave and believing Jewish woman. Esther then involved Mordecai, her influential uncle, in her plan. In the unfolding events, Esther proved herself more than a trophy bride as she outwitted the most powerful men of the empire, and lived to write a decree celebrating it.26 The story concludes with not only the deliverance of the Jews but the emergence of Esther as a powerful queen who engineers the promotion of her relative, Mordecai. He received promotion and wealth directly from Esther as the agent of his empowerment. As Esther and Mordecai demonstrate, in order to survive in this hostile environment the Jews needed to be canny and smart and remain faithful to God. While Esther did not hold public office in her own right, the narrative describes the potential for queens to influence and shape politics. As queen, Esther had unofficial power and indirect influence over the events of the Empire through her access and relationship to the king. Esther exercised enormous leadership through the only avenue available to her race and gender in the post-exilic period: private influence. The purpose of the narrative is to encourage the seemingly powerless and displaced Jews that they, like Esther, need to be resourceful, courageous and trust God in order to survive.27 To survive, they must help each other: the book of Esther links national salvation with human agency.28

Michael Fox writes:

"Esther becomes a sort of judge (of the type we see in the book of Judges) without the benefit of the Spirit of the Lord. She is a leader whose charisma comes not from sudden divine imposition of Spirit but as a result of a difficult process of inner development and self-realization."

The Book of Esther is in the Bible as a reminder that God can and does use women to further his purposes in the world. Esther is to be seen as a courageous believing woman who broke with cultural norms to do what God required in a very dangerous situation for her. Her leadership saved the lives of countless numbers of God's people at that time. Her story should inspire every woman who wants to serve God.

Conclusion From this brief survey of women leaders in the Old Testament, we see that despite the cultural obstacles at various stages in ancient Israelite and Jewish history, women provided leadership in critical times to the people of God. That influence varied according to the leadership structures in place, from a wandering clan to the remnant community.

In each example, the leadership of women was accepted by the community and even celebrated. What was celebrated was not the gender of the one who gave leadership but what they did in God's name and with his blessing. The obstacles to women giving leadership were not because God in creation had set women under men, but rather the cultural norms of the age. God makes this plain by periodically raising up women leaders in ancient Israel such as Miriam, Deborah, Huldah and Esther. If such women were raised up by God in these patriarchal times, surely we should expect him to raise up women leaders in greater numbers in our egalitarian culture today. This article was first published in Giles, K. and Cooper-Clarke, D. (2017) Women & Men: One in Christ: CBE National Conference ‘Better together 2017’, Melbourne, Australia Denise Cooper-Clarke & Kevin Giles, editors. Melbourne, VIC: Christians for Biblical Equality.

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Jacqueline Grey is Professor of Biblical Studies, specialising in hermeneutics, Old Testament/Hebrew Bible, Isaiah, and Pentecostal theology. She is passionate about empowering people to read and understand the Bible, and to apply it to their lives today. Her publications include Them, Us and Me: How the Old Testament Speaks to People Today, Raising Women Leaders, and Three's A Crowd: Pentecostalism, Hermeneutics and the Old Testament as well as numerous articles, book chapters, and edited volumes. Jacqui speaks regularly at local and international events and has appeared on various national TV and radio programs in Australia, including the ABC TV's Q&A and The Drum programs.

Jacqui is a member and past president (2017) of the Society for Pentecostal Studies, and was co-chair of the Biblical Ethics section (2022-2024) of the Society of Biblical Literature. She is also a Research Fellow in the Department of Biblical and Ancient Studies, University of South Africa, and at the Centre for Pentecostal Theology (Cleveland TN, USA). Jacqui is also committed to the unity of the church and the work of ecumenism, particularly through involvement in various ecumenical dialogues and in her appointment to the Faith and Order Commission of the World Council of Churches. Jacqui is an ordained pastor in the Australian Christian Churches (ACC).

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1. It is important to define precisely this term "leader'. There are numerous definitions, such as Maxwell's well-known designation of leadership as influence (J. Maxwell, Developing the Leader within You, Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson Publishers, 1993,1). However, this definition is so broad as to almost be unhelpful. A crying baby may influence their parents to change their evening plans. Is the baby then a leader? Clearly not. Tan Jagelman highlights the difference between ministry and leadership. Ministry is any activity that serves the needs of people (such as praying, teaching, and counselling). However a leader is one who directs, influences or facilitates ministry performed by others. This includes decision making, planning, vision setting and personnel selection (L. Jagelman, The Empowered Church, Sydney: Open Books, 1999, 4). That is, ministry builds people but leadership builds the community.

2. PJ. Gentry & S. J. Wellum, Kingdom Through Covenant: A Biblical-Theological Understanding of the Covenants, Wheaton, III.: Crossway, 2012, Kindle edition, Chapter 6.

3. Gentry and Wellum, Chapter 6.

4. While interpreters who hold this view vary, many can be broadly grouped under the category of "complementarian'. Proponents of this view have formed a network called the "The Council for Biblical Manhood and Womanhood.'

5. See R. Ortlund Jr, 'Male-Female Equality and Male Headship: Genesis 1-3 in John Piper & Wayne Grudem, Recovering Biblical Manhood and Womanhood: A in Response 1o Evangelical Feminism, Wheaton, Ill: Crossway, 1991, 95.

6. As above, while interpreters that hold this view vary, many can be broadly grouped under the category of 'egalitarianism'. Proponents of this view have formed a network called 'Christians for Biblical Equality.'

7. In the nineteen times that "helper' is used in scripture, it is used fifteen times to deseribe God bringing help (or salvation) to people.

8. For example, in our Western culture if a woman is widowed generally she would inherit the estate of her late husband, would have the opportunity to find or continue employment or at least receive financial assistance through government support schemes. This is of course dependent on her unique circumstances, but generally, a woman could be financially independent if such a tragedy were to occur and remain so as long as she chose. In ancient Israel this was not the case. If a woman was widowed, she was destitute unless taken in by her family. She would not inherit her late husband's estate but could only survive through the generosity of her family. If this was not given or not able to be given (think of the example of Ruth), then she had limited options apart from poverty or prostitution. So as we explore some of the examples of women leaders in the Old Testament, it is important to place them in their proper cultural and historical context.

9. An example of this is that while both a man and a woman could make a vow of dedication to become a Nazarite in Numbers 6, unlike the man, the vow of the woman could be nullified by her father (if unmarried) or husband (see Numbers 30). However, the man's vow could not be nullified by another person. Women were under the legal power (and protection) of their male family members.

10. J. Goldingay, Theological Diversity and the Authority of the Old Testament, Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1987, 59-96.

11. Carol Meyers in particular notes that women feature much more highly in the narratives of non-centralised community life which allowed a larger openness to women's leadership roles than in other periods of centralization (such as the monarchy). See C. Meyers, Discovering Eve: Ancient Israelite Women in Context, New York: Oxford University Press, 1998, 5.

12. While the number of members of a household is unclear, there are suggestions as to the size. For example, when Abraham rescues Lot in Genesis 14 he takes with him "318 trained men born in his household" (Gen 14:14) for the operation. If there are 318 men in their household, not to mention women and children, then the household would potentially measure up to a thousand. While this is possibly an inflated number even half of that is still a significant size.

13. For further reading on this, see my chapter in Raising Women Leaders, eds S. Clifton and Grey, Chester Hill, Aust: Australian Pentecostal Studies, 2009, 73-75.

14. W. Gafney, Daughters of Miriam: Women Prophets in Ancient Israel, Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2008, Kindle Edition, Chapter 3. Gafney refers to this as the first religious musical performance in post-Exodus Israel.

15. E. Hamori, Women's Divination in Biblical Literature: Prophecy, Necromancy, and Other Arts of Knowledge, New Haven: YUP, 2015, 86.

16. B. Witherington III, Jesus the Seer: The Progress of Prophecy, Peabody: Hendrickson

    Publishers, 1999, 28.

17. W. Eichrodt, Theology of the Old Testament, Philadelphia: Westminster/John Knox, 1961, 298. Other prophets such as Elijah were also referred to as father, as the leader of a school of prophets (2 Kings 2:12).

18. Daughters of Miriam: Women Prophets in Ancient Israel, Kindle Edition, Introduction.

19. Lee Roy Martin provides some insightful comments. He notes that "It is not from necessity that God uses Deborah but from his divine choice. It has been argued as well that the ministry of women is an exception that God allows only in times of extreme spiritual chaos. If that were true, we would expect Deborah to be one of the final judges, since the Israelites grow more unfaithful as the book progresses. I would argue that male domination is the aberration, caused by human sinfulness, and that in God's redeemed kingdom there is no domination or subjugation (cf. Gal.3.28)." See L. R. Martin, "Tongues of Angels, Words of prophets: Means of Divine Communication in the Book of Judges', in S.J. Land et al (eds) Passover, Periles & Parousia: Studies in Celebration of the Life and Ministry of R. Hollis Gause, Cleveland: Deo Publishing, 2010, 39.

20. Daughters of Miriam, Kindle Edition, Chapter 3.

21. B. Herzberg, 'Deborah and Moses' Journal for the Study of the Old Testame, 38.1 (2013), 16.

22. Women's Divination in Biblical Literature, 87.

23. Women's Divination in Biblical Literature, 150.

24. Daughters of Miriam. It is noted that while other female prophets were recognised as such and spoke authoritatively on behalf of God they were not recorded in the narratives as adopting this terminology.

25. Daughters of Miriam.

26. K.H. Jobes, Esther, NIV Application Commentary, Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2011, Kindle Edition, Esther 1:9-12.

27. J.D. Levinson, Esther: A Commentary, Old Testament Library, Louisville: Westminster/John Knox, 1997, 16.

28. M.V. Fox, Character and Ideology in the Book of Esther, 2nd Ed., Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2001, 205.